The inner lining of the urinary bladder is a mucous membrane of transitional epithelium that is continuous with that in the ureters. When the bladder is empty, the mucosa has numerous folds called rugae. The rugae and transitional epithelium allow the bladder to expand as it fills.

The second layer in the walls is the submucosa, which supports the mucous membrane. It is composed of connective tissue with elastic fibers.

The next layer is the muscularis, which is composed of smooth muscle. The smooth muscle fibers are interwoven in all directions and, collectively, these are called the detrusor muscle. Contraction of this muscle expels urine from the bladder. On the superior surface, the outer layer of the bladder wall is parietal peritoneum. In all other regions, the outer layer is fibrous connective tissue.

There is a triangular area, called the trigone, formed by three openings in the floor of the urinary bladder. Two of the openings are from the ureters and form the base of the trigone. Small flaps of mucosa cover these openings and act as valves that allow urine to enter the bladder but prevent it from backing up from the bladder into the ureters. The third opening, at the apex of the trigone, is the opening into the urethra. A band of the detrusor muscle encircles this opening to form the internal urethral sphincter.

Shape of the Bladder

The appearance of the bladder varies depending on the amount of urine stored. When full, it exhibits an oval shape, and when empty it is flattened by the overlying bowel.

The external features of the bladder are:

• Apex – located superiorly, pointing towards the pubic symphysis. It is connected to the umbilicus by the median umbilical ligament (a remnant of the urachus).
• Body – main part of the bladder, located between the apex and the fundus
• Fundus (or base) – located posteriorly. It is triangular-shaped, with the tip of the triangle pointing backwards.
• Neck – formed by the convergence of the fundus and the two inferolateral surfaces. It is continuous with the urethra.

Urine enters the bladder through the left and right ureters, and exits via the urethra. Internally, these orifices are marked by the trigone – a triangular area located within the fundus.

In contrast to the rest of the internal bladder, the trigone has smooth walls (this is explained by the different embryological origin: the trigone is developed by the integration of two mesonephric ducts at the base of the bladder).

Musculature

The musculature of the bladder plays a key role in the storage and emptying of urine.

In order to contract during micturition, the bladder wall contains specialised smooth muscle – known as detrusor muscle. Its fibres are orientated in multiple directions, thus retaining structural integrity when stretched. It receives innervation from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

The fibers of the detrusor muscle often become hypertrophic (presenting as prominent trabeculae) in order to compensate for increased workload of the bladder emptying. This is very common in conditions that obstruct the urine outflow such as benign prostatic hyperplasia.

There are also two muscular sphincters located in the urethra:

• Internal urethral sphincter:
  • Male – consists of circular smooth fibres, which are under autonomic control. It is thought to prevent seminal regurgitation during ejaculation.
  • Females – thought to be a functional sphincter (i.e. no sphincteric muscle present). It is formed by the anatomy of the bladder neck and proximal urethra.
• External urethral sphincter – has the same structure in both sexes. It is skeletal muscle, and under voluntary control. However, in males the external sphincteric mechanism is more complex, as it correlates with fibers of the rectourethralis muscle and the levator ani muscle.

The Bladder Stretch Reflex

The bladder stretch reflex is a primitive spinal reflex, in which micturition is stimulated in response to stretch of the bladder wall. It is analogous to a muscle spinal reflex, such as the patella reflex.

During toilet training in infants, this spinal reflex is overridden by the higher centres of the brain, to give voluntary control over micturition.

The reflex arc:

• Bladder fills with urine, and the bladder walls stretch. Sensory nerves detect stretch and transmit this information to the spinal cord.
• Interneurons within the spinal cord relay the signal to the parasympathetic efferents (the pelvic nerve).
• The pelvic nerve acts to contract the detrusor muscle, and stimulate micturition.

Although it is non-functional post childhood, the bladder stretch reflex needs to be considered in spinal injuries (where the descending inhibition cannot reach the bladder), and in neurodegenerative diseases (where the brain is unable to generate inhibition).

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